The lottery winner Essay Example For Students

The lottery winner Essay The book starts out in Manhattan, New York in modern times. The book mostly takes place in New York city but throughout the book they also travel to London, England, cypress point spa, and several other places. The book ends back in Manhattan, New York. Alvirah Meehan is a former maid that is near her sixties and has quit her job after her and her husband struck it rich in the winning of the lottery. Alvirah started taking interest in helping people with murders and other problems that she ran across while traveling across the world. After she had won the lottery the New York Globe news paper had asked her to write about all of her different adventures. We will write a custom essay on The lottery winner specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Willy Meehan is around his sixties, he has blue eyes with white hair. Willy is a former plumber who quit his job after wining the lottery with his wife Alvirah. Willy enjoys traveling with Alvirah to all the different places. He is very supportive and help full to Alvirah in her interest of helping others with there crimes. He also enjoys helping the poor or just those people that cant afford to hire a plumber so he dose the job for free. Brian who is somewhere around his twenties, he is an up and coming famous play writer. Brian is the nephew of Willy. Brian is first introduced in the first story called The body in the closet.He was staying at the apartment of Willy and Alvirah were a body was found in there closet at there return from there trip to England. He becomes the main suspespect in the murder because he was the last be in the apartment. This was not a good thing for Brian because his career was just taking off with all the great plays he was writing. Brian becomes very lucky with the help of Alvirah as they prove his innocence. Brian then was able to go back on with is writings of the plays. Cynthia Lathem was found guilty for the murder of her father in the second story.It all happened when she was in her junior year of the Rhode Island School of Design when her step father Stuart Richards was found shot to death in the study of his mansion. Cynthia spent 12 years in prison for the murder. She spent the time thinking and asking herself who could have set me up. Cynthia knew that she was innocent and thats when she meet Alvirah who was the answer to all her problems because she was about to help prove her innocence. Cynthia proved her innocence and then went on to marry and enjoy her life. Rhonda Alvirez the winner of six million dollars. She was latter cheated out of the money by her husband when he swapped the ticket with a ticket bought by the lady he had thought he fell in love with. A lady that he had been having an affair with. His intentions where to run off with her, but things got out of hand and he was killed. Rhonda then became the main suspect in the murder only to make things worse in her life. But once again Alvirah was to the rescue she meet her and Alvirah began to take over by going through her crime solving technics. With the help of Alvirah Rhonda was found not guilty and received the six million dollars that was so rightfully hers. The book starts out with Alvirah and willy returning from their trip from England just after they struck it rich in the lottery. Alvirah takes interest in solving crimes and murders so at each trip she ends up in getting herself into something or another dealing with crime. She helps many people throughout the book where it ends back in New York where she solves her last crime. .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f , .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .postImageUrl , .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f , .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:hover , .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:visited , .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:active { border:0!important; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:active , .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u84a982eb358ff5f91c03714847ff250f:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Application Stuff: EssayThe theme of the book was that Alvirah in how she won the lottery and found herself to be very good at crime solving as she travels the world helping people as well as in her home town Manhattan, New York. She wanted to be apart of everything no matter how much harm it would bring to herself. There was at least one time in the book where she almost had her own life taken by another person while trying to help solve a crime. I think that Alvirah learns in this book that she could have been a lot better detective than just a cleaning lady. The book was very interesting. It was always hard to find a place to quit reading. The book was very suspenseful always leaving you to guess what could possible happen next. I was always on the edge of my chair waiting and wondering what could possibly happen next. I would recommend the book to anyone that enjoys reading suspenseful books. Bibliography:Authors Biography:Mary was born and raised in New York. She is of Irish descent who considers her Irish heritage an important influence on her writing. Marys father died when she was just Ten years old leaving her mom to raise her and her and her two brothers. After she graduated she went on to secretarial school so that she could get a job to help her mother with family fiances. She went on to marry a neighbor who she had known since she was 16 years old. Then later her husband died leaving her to raise there five children. Shortly after she became more known before she became the writer she is today.Who we refer to as the AMERICAS QUEEN OF SUSPENSE. Authors Biography:Mary was born and raised in New York. She is of Irish descent who considers her Irish heritage an important influence on her writing. Marys father died when she was just Ten years old leaving her mom to raise her and her and her two brothers. After she graduated she went on to secretarial school so that sh e could get a job to help her mother with family fiances. She went on to marry a neighbor who she had known since she was 16 years old. Then later her husband died leaving her to raise there five children. Shortly after she became more known before she became the writer she is today.Who we refer to as the AMERICAS QUEEN OF SUSPENSE.

The Role of the High Court in Australias system of government

The Role of the High Court in Australias system of government Introduction The Australian High Court is the highest independent judicial arm of the government, which is also a significant feature of Australia’s liberal-democratic governance (Patapan, 2010, p. 167; Banks, 2007, p. 16).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of the High Court in Australia’s system of government specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main functions of this court include interpreting and applying the Australian constitution, solving cases regarding the federal system of governance such as instances where the constitutional validity of the laws is challenged, and officiating appeal cases (Singleton et al., 2009, p.64). However, in the recent past, there have been arguments over the court’s role in the shifting balance of power, which tends to favor the Commonwealth. As a result, there is the need to look into the factors underlying this shift in the balance of power and the rele vant constitutional interpretations since the initial constitution provided for the preservation of the balance of power between the commonwealth and the states (Singleton et al., 2009, p.64). To this end, the essay will look at the role of the high court in interpreting the wording of the Australian constitution by considering the Engineers case (Amalgamated Society of Engineers Vs Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd) of 1920. In addition, this essay aims at illustrating the High Court’s role as a political institution of governance through considering the court’s input in supporting the legislation regarding income tax, which was enacted by the Commonwealth in 1942. Overall, the two cases will serve as examples of the roles played by the high court in interpreting the Australian constitution, and acting as a political institution in the Australian system of governance.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The role of the High Court in interpreting the laws Considering that all the constitutional rights of appeal bestowed upon the Privy Council have been abolished in the recent past, it is certain that the Australian constitution allows the High Court to interpret the laws (Singleton et al., 2009, p.65). This implies that all the constitutional cases including appeals originating from different jurisdictions, which bear a greater political significance to the federal government, are referred to the High Court. Here, it is worth noting that most constitutional cases are based on disagreements involving the balance of power between the federal and the state governments particularly in matters dealing with trade, banking, and arbitrations (Singleton et al., 2009, p. 65; Wiltshire, 2008, p. 31). Thus, the decisions made by the High Court regarding these cases can have far-reaching implications since they form the framework for decisions made by other cou rts several years later. Accordingly, since its inception, the High court’s rulings have been centered on controlling the federal powers, giving wider interpretations of the federal powers, sustaining the role played by the Commonwealth in governance without bias, and as can be noted from the recent developments, the High Court is engaged in providing additional interpretations of the powers held by the federal government (Ward Stewart, 2010, p. 105). However, of particular interest in this respect is the court’s role in the Engineers case whereby it was decided that the federal adjudication powers as provided in section 51(xxxv) of the constitution could also apply in other parts of the country including Western Australia (Singleton et al., 2009, p. 66; Ward Stewart, 2010, p. 115). Additionally, regarding the Engineers case, the High Court is said to have given the Commonwealth the full control over worker’s wages at the national level.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of the High Court in Australia’s system of government specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In so doing, the court can be regarded to as playing the role of reshaping the constitutional interpretations put forward in 1901, and thus, providing a framework upon which the disagreements arising between the Commonwealth and the States can be solved. Here, the court played the role of a constitutional adjudicator considering that despite enlarging the legislative powers of the Commonwealth on one hand, it also confined these powers on the other hand. Further, it is to be noted that the majority of the court was of the idea that the interpretation of the constitution should be based on its original wording, and not on implied prohibitions or implied immunity, which were two major doctrines used by the courts in the early 1900s (Ward Stewart, 2010, p. 119). Therefore, by giving the constitution its nor mal word meaning, the High Court extended the powers of the Commonwealth to cover some aspects, which were initially prohibited by interpreting the laws on the basis of the drafters’ wishful meanings of the constitutional wording. However, it should be noted that this broader interpretation of the laws was not meant to give the federal government an upper hand, but it served to check almost all aspects of governance, and to maintain the balance of power between the federal and state governments (Wiltshire, 2008, p. 35). The role of the High Court as a political institution If we had to examine what the drafters of the Australian constitution had in mind, it is certain that they wanted to develop the US-system of the judiciary, which performs various functions such as the federal judicial review (Banks, 2007, p. 18). Here, the role played by the High Court entails examining the laws made in both the Commonwealth and the State legislatures in order to ensure that they fall with in the provisions of the constitution.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Accordingly, considering that disputes could arise between the federal and state governments such as the one discussed above, there is the paramount need to have a mediator who should be impartial and unconcerned with issues raised by either party in order for justice to be served. This role could not fit any institution apart from the Australian High Court. As a result, the High Court can be regarded to as an arbiter of federalism or an advocate of the Australian constitution (Patapan, 2010, p.168). It then follows that the decisions made by the High Court will have extensive political implications. For instance, during the war-time in 1942, the federal government came up with a legislation meant to control the overall income tax, a move which was challenged in court by the state governments (Singleton et al., 2009, p. 169). In this constitutional conflict, the High Court ruled in favor of the federal government, and thus gave the Commonwealth the authority to implement uniform tax ation at the national level. This implied that the state governments could not impose their own taxes outside those implemented by the Commonwealth. Besides, it is to be noted that the court also gave a broader meaning of section 90, which entails the Excise, and thus limiting the taxation power of the Commonwealth in some aspects. These decisions of the court point to the fact that it plays a political role in that the High Court has the power to look into the actions of both the legislature and the executive in order to determine whether those actions fall within the exact meaning of the constitution. Furthermore, the case shows instances where the High Court can annul some actions of the executive, which may not be based on proper interpretation of the constitution. Moreover, this case is one of many instances where the High Court came in to help solve constitutional conflicts arising from wrong interpretation of the constitution or obscure laws (Ward Stewart, 2010, p. 105). Her e, it is also important to note that the High Court was acting purely within its constitutional mandate, which dictates that such conflicts be treated as legal questions irrespective of the impending political consequences. Overall, the court’s decisions show that the High Court judges understand their role in the political sphere and judicial review (Patapan, 2010, p. 169). References List Banks, R 2007, Hot topics: legal issues in plain language, Legal Information Access Centre, Australia. Patapan, H 2010, High court, (Insert the publisher and the Town for the book you scanned for me). Singleton et al. 2009, High court, (Insert the publisher and the Town for the book that you scanned for me). Ward, T Stewart, R 2010, Politics one (4th ed), Palgrave MacMillan, Australia. Wiltshire, K 2008, ‘Australian federalism: the business perspective’, The University of  New South Wales Law Journal, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 31-45.

Cigarette companies targeting people Research Paper

Cigarette companies targeting people - Research Paper Example Cigarette manufacturers are more interested in safeguarding their business interests rather than the interests of the people or the country. It should be noted that government is getting huge money as taxes given by the cigarette manufacturers and therefore it is impossible for the government to completely ban this activity. Cigarette manufacturers know this fact very well and they are finding new ways to spread smoking. This paper analyses how cigarette companies are targeting their customers. Tobacco company research confirmed the association between tobacco use and alcohol use. Cigarette manufacturers explored promotional strategies linking cigarettes and alcohol, such as jointly sponsoring special events with alcohol companies to lower the cost of sponsorships, increase consumer appeal, reinforce brand identity, and generate increased cigarette sales. They also pursued promotions that tied cigarette sales to alcohol purchases, and cigarette promotional events frequently featured alcohol discounts or encouraged alcohol use. Tobacco companies numerous marketing strategies linking cigarettes with alcohol may have reinforced the use of both substances. Because using tobacco and alcohol together makes it harder to quit smoking (Jiang & Ling, 2011, p.1942). The nexus between liquor manufacturers and cigarette companies is well documented by many studies. It should be noted that many people have the habit of smoking at the time of drinking alcohol. In fact smoking, while drinking, is an essential activity to get the maximum pleasure out of drinking. Tobacco manufacturers know this fact very well and they are offering cigarettes for every purchase of liquor bottles. Thus both liquor manufacturers and cigarette manufacturers are reaping profits. It should be noted that the combined effect of alcohol and cigarette smoke create addiction so that the smokers or the

Based on your ideas on Nilsen and Tannen, discuss how language Essay

Based on your ideas on Nilsen and Tannen, discuss how language reflects patriarchy (Patriarchy) - Essay Example Besides, she manages to show that even when filling forms, women tell stories about themselves because most forms offer four titles to choose from and they include â€Å"Mr.†, â€Å"Mrs† or â€Å"Miss† and â€Å"Dr†. In her work, â€Å"Mr.† â€Å"carries no meaning other than that the respondent is male† (Tennen395); however, when women accept â€Å"Mrs.† or â€Å"Miss† it shows that they have been married and that they have conservative forms of address. Women using the label â€Å"Ms.† decline to reveal if they are married while men using the title â€Å"Mr.† decline nothing considering that nothing was asked; hence, women using â€Å"Ms.† tend to be seen â€Å"as either liberated or rebellious depending on the observer’s attitudes† (Tennen395). Tennen shows that married women surnames are marked and that if a married woman accepts her husband’s name, she acknowledges to the world that , â€Å"she is married and has traditional values† (Tennen396). ... From her dictionary cards, Nielsen shows that â€Å"feminine words have acquired sexual connotations while the masculine word retains serious business like aura† (Nielsen). For instance, she manages to show that while a callboy is an individual who calls actors when time comes for them to go to stage, a call girl is considered a prostitute. In her study, Nielsen found about 200 pairs of words that accepted both masculine and feminine forms and in nearly all of the pairs, masculine form was considered the base where a feminine suffix was added. The masculine form is basis on which compounds are made apart from one semantic area where masculine word is not the basis and the areas deals with sex, marriage and motherhood. Nielsen shows that when someone refers to a virgin, the listener probably considers a female unless the speaker specifies a masculine pronoun, which is the same case with the term prostitute. Moreover, Nielsen shows that the grammar used in writing or even talkin g about weddings show the expectation of men playing an active role when men wed women while the women become brides of men. Nevertheless, titles offered to royalty indicate that males can be at loss because of the assumption that they predominantly play a powerful role; for instance, when a female has the royal title, then the man she marries does not automatically acquire a matching title. From Nielsen’s article, it is clear that connotations between encouraging male and pessimistic female connotations can be established from various pairs of words that differ denotatively in the area of sex. For instance, patron and matron have varying degrees of esteem that womenfolk attempt to use the

Hepatitis causes and effects

Hepatitis causes and effects Abstract Hepatitis, one of the major incurable diseases, still exists nowadays endangering many peoples lives. It has many types i.e. Hepatitis A, B, C, D, E and G. The nature of Hepatitis is viral which is caught by either through body fluids or improper personal hygiene in addition to other causes which remains unknown. This disease leads into serious physiological effects such as fatigue, jaundice and serious liver complication like liver Cirrhosis. Psychosocial effect which is another outcome of Hepatitis includes social withdrawal, anxiety, depression and suicidal tendency. Despite of the extensive researches to find a cure for Hepatitis, there is still no effective treatment for it so the responsibility of avoiding this infection is both on government and individuals. Hepatitis is one of the most fatal diseases which was discovered in the early eighties; it can be defined as an inflammation of the liver organ. Hepatitis is derived from the Latin words Hepat which means the liver and itis inflammation. The usual cause of Hepatitis is a virus that invades the body through blood stream. This virus could get into the body either through body fluids or improper personal hygiene, leading to serious physiological and psychosocial effects. There are several types of Hepatitis, such as A, B, C, D,E and G. A, B and C viruses are the most common types of Hepatitis and all these viruses can cause similar problems and have similar symptoms, but they spread in different ways and have different effects on the body. There are several modes of transmission including contaminated body fluids, improper personal hygiene in addition to idiopathic causes. Contaminated body fluids include saliva, blood, feces and urine. Blood transfusion is the most common method, where the blood is transferred from an infected patient to another patient what would be called Horizontal Transmission. Another method is the Vertical Transmission which occurs when a pregnant woman pass it to her fetus. Furthermore, contaminated needles shared by the drug abusers or in medical accidents such as needle pricks† is another way emphasized by (Nowak and Handford, 2004, p.379). Having unprotected sex and multi-partners are other ways leading to this disease according to Nowak and Handford (2004) whom reported that Sexual transmission does occur, particularly among the homosexuals. Note also that 20% of infected heterosexuals pass the virus to their spouses.(p.380). All of the above mentioned causes can lead to Hepatitis B a nd C which are the most dangerous ones. The second major cause of Hepatitis is poor hygiene, for instance, personal and general. To start with contaminated water such as sewage lanes, rivers and public toilets are places of great risk for caching Hepatitis A especially to those who live nearby. This type of Hepatitis is usually transferred by feces according to Fiore (2004) HAV is primarily transmitted by the fecal-oral route, either by person-to-person contact or by ingestion of contaminated food or water (p.705-15).Moreover, unwashed vegetables and shellfish, such as clams and oysters may be contaminated by sewage to become sources of infection to humans. Also, personal hygiene is another element for contacting hepatitis and can occur by sharing razors, toothbrushes and towels, and leads to Hepatitis B and C. Despite previously discussed causes of this disease, there is still a great sector of hepatitis which remains unknown. Statistics shows that approximately 30% of hepatitis B infection are of unknown origin.40% of Hepatitis C cases are idiopathic (Nowak and Handford, 2004,p.379-80). Where another article points that sources is unknown but could be considerable; 50% of reported patients with hepatitis A do not have an identified source of infection (Fiore, 2004, p.706). But McHutchison Bacon (2005) emphasized in their diagram of Figure 2: Sources of Infection for Persons With Hepatitis C that only 10 % of Hepatitis C infection are unknown(p.S287). There are many effects of this disease which lie under the two categories: the physiological effects and psychosocial effects. Where the physiological effects contain all the symptoms of Hepatitis, the psychosocial effects indicate the emotional and social consequences of being a Hepatitis patient. The symptoms of the various forms of hepatitis are similar and they are caused by the damage in the liver. The most noticeable symptom is jaundice which causes a yellowing of the skin. Other symptoms associated with hepatitis include fatigue, general body pain, nausea, mild fever, and loss of appetite. As the infection spreads in the liver, the organ becomes enlarged. It may cause pain in the abdomen and in worst scenario can lead to liver Cirrhoses which mean total liver damage and eventually death. It takes seven to eight weeks after exposure to the Hepatitis virus for the symptoms to appear. A patient with Hepatitis is not only predisposed to physical symptoms, but also to emotional and social problems. These complexities include depression and social withdrawal as each one leads into the other, added to that depression and anxiety which commonly occur together. Anybody who suffers from Hepatitis will be anxious and this anxiety may lead in to depression in sever cases, for example when a patient suffers from Hepatitis and he knows it is a serious illness defiantly he will not stop worrying, these worries can make the person preoccupied with his illness and lead him to depression. Moreover, a Hepatitis patient social withdraw as a result of being unable to find a partner who is willing to live with this fatal disease. It is also hard to make people understand the nature of this serious disease and make friends and families accept and accommodate it. All this may drive the patient to be lonely and tempt to be suicidal. To sum up, Hepatitis is still one of our life time mysteries to be solved. The spread of this disease is mostly due to the natural or hygienic causes in addition to some percentage of idiopathic causes which is still unknown. Like any other illness, Hepatitis has many drawbacks which could be listed under two categories physiological and psychosocial. Unfortunately, despite the advanced field of medicine Hepatitis remains un-ended and research continues in order to find the ultimate treatment for it. Until a final cure is found, precautionary steps should be taken by both government and individuals. The government is responsible to ensure infection control awareness over this disease through its health system. But it is a personal responsibility to prevent oneself from this disease as well as any other disease by following the simple rules of hygiene and ensure to get proper health care from reliable health establishments only. References Fiore, E. (2004). Hepatitis A Transmitted by Food. FOOD SAFETY, 38(1), 705-715. McHutchison, J. G., Bacon, B. R. (2005). Chronic Hepatitis C: An Age Wave of Disease Burden. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MANAGED CARE, 11(10), S286-295. Nowak, T. J., Handford, A. G. (2004). Pathophysiology :Concepts and Application for Health care Professionals (Third ed.). NY: Mc Graw Hill. Prevention, C. f. D. C. a. (2009). Disease burden from viral hepatitis A, B, and C in the United States [Electronic Version]. Retrieved 9 Dec 2008 from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hepatitis/resources/dz_burden02.htm.

Mechanics assignment friction

This lab was based on projectile motion and it was to prove the theory that was covered in lecture 5 to be correct. When dealing with projectile motion, it is the theory that when an object has been fired from its starting point into the air, it will come under the influence of gravity and is attracted to ground with an acceleration of g m/s squared.In the lab a projectile launcher was used to project two steel balls, one in the horizontal direction and one in the vertical direction. The ball that was launched in the vertical direction was ball 1 and the ball that was launched in the horizontal direction was ball 2. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate projectile motion through the use of a vertical acceleration apparatus which shows the independence of vertical acceleration from the horizontal velocity.Projectile motion is a form of motion in which an object or particle (called a projectile) s thrown obliquely near the earth's surface, and it moves along a curved path u nder the action of gravity only. The path followed by a projectile motion called its trajectory. Projectile motion only occurs when there is one force applied at the beginning of the trajectory, after which there is no force in operation apart from gravity. Introduction: Part B Part B of the lab was on Tractive Forces. Tractive force means the force available at the contact between the drive wheel tyres and road is known as ‘tractive effort' or tractive force'.As used in mechanical engineering the term tractive force can either efer to the total traction a vehicle exerts on a surface, or the amount of the total traction that is parallel to the direction of motion. The published tractive force value for any vehicle may be theoretical†that is, calculated from known or implied mechanical properties†or obtained via testing under controlled conditions. The example that was taken in the lab was of a train of 3 parts that were coupled together by couples (T 1) and (T2).Th e purpose of this lab was to prove the theory covered in lecture 6 was correct and to see the relationship between force, mass and cceleration in tractive forces which comes from Newton's 2nd law. We know that force = mass x acceleration and we also were giving the conditions to which the train was under. Table 1, Part A: recorded and calculated data Measured time and distance for the vertical ball and the horizontal ball projected from projectile launcher. Test 1st Ball (vertical) 2nd Ball (horizontal) Distance (s) (m) Time of flight (t) 0. 5 0. 93 0. 6 1. 38 0. 4 0. 51 1. 46 0. 43 0. 56 1. 36 0. 35 0. 57 1. 34 0. 60 0. 68 1. 39 0. 0 7 0. 40 0. 54 1 . 45 8 0. 28 1 . 31 9 0. 30 0. 47 10 1. 32 Average values 0. 391 1 . 387 Table 2, part A: Calculated Horizontal velocity, acceleration due to gravity, the % difference in the value of gravity, and the Vertical velocity. Horizontal velocity (Vh) (calculated) 2. 57 rrvs Acceleration due to gravity, g (calculated) 6. 38 m/s squared % diffe rence in the value of g -34. 96% Vertical striking velocity (W) (calculated) 3. 83 rms (Horizontal velocity) S = Vx T therefore S = 1. 39 = 2. 57 m/s T 0. 54 (Acceleration due to gravity) Sv = IJvT – 1 g(t)squared 2 Therefore = 2 (0. 93) squared T squared 0. 54 squared = 1. 86 = 6. 378 = 6. 8 rms 0. 2916 0. 2916 (% difference in the value of g) % difference = Calculated -g x 100 . 81 (Vertical striking velocity) V=U+GXT v = o + 3. 83571 v = 3. 83 rms Discussion part A =6. 38-9. 81 x 100 In this lab that was completed it was shown that the theory behind projectile motion is correct. It was proven that both balls came under the influence of gravity once they left the projectile launcher and that they were both attracted to ground. The two balls were launched from the same vertical height but the ball number 2 that was travelling in the horizontal direction travelled a further distance than ball number 1 in the vertical direction.Even though ball number 2 travelled a further dis tance the wo balls will hit the ground at the same time as they both come under the same force of gravity however this was not shown in our table 1 (Fig 1) because their was human errors such as, two people starting the stop watches at different times, the person pressing the trigger mechanism was releasing the balls faster sometimes than other times even though we would start the stop watches on the count of 3. The other factors that had to be taken into consideration is, if the projectile launcher was at any sort of an angle due to the work bench not been balanced or level or an even surface.However the readings that were taken were still very close to each other so experiment the initial velocity of each ball was O m/s. To calculate the acceleration due to gravity we manipulated the equation to find (g) gravity. When dealing with projectiles, we use the same equations as linear motion but the (a) for acceleration is replaced or substituted with (g) for gravity. The acceleration d ue to gravity was 6. 38 m/s squared. In theory this acceleration should have been 9. 81 m/ s squared but due to the human errors that occurred during the experiments there was a difference of -3. m/s squared these % errors came from miscalculating of the time taken for the balls to hit the ground and the distance travelled by the horizontal ball. When the steel ball number 2 is projected from the projectile launcher in the horizontal direction, the time it takes for the steel ball to hit the ground is independent of its initial horizontal velocity, the steel ball will continue to move in the horizontal direction with the same horizontal velocity in which it was projected from the projectile launcher with because there is no acceleration so it stays at a constant velocity.The distance that the steel ball number 2 travels in the horizontal distance before it hits the ground is dependent on the time of flight and the horizontal velocity that it was projected with. Projectile motion onl y occurs when there is one force applied at the beginning of the trajectory, after which there is no force in operation apart from gravity, this was proven in the experiment as ball number 1 was let fall from a height with no other force applied and ball number two was projected with a horizontal velocity from the projectile launcher and both balls were attracted to ground as they came under the nfluence of gravity.We found the value of acceleration using the average vertical height in which the ball was projected from and used the average horizontal time in which it took ball number two to hit the ground as ball number two was projected with an horizontal velocity it still should hit the ground at the same time as ball number one does as there both under the same force of gravity. If our measurements and calculations were 100% we should have got an acceleration of 9. 81 m/s squared. The horizontal component of the velocity of the object remains unchanged throughout the motion.The v ertical component of the velocity increases linearly, because the acceleration due to gravity is constant. It is important to note that the Range and the Maximum height of the Projectile do not depend upon mass of the projected body. The Range and Max Height are equal for all those bodies which are thrown by same velocity and direction. Air resistance does not affect displacement of a projectile; this is why we do not take the mass of the balls into consideration or the mass of any objects when dealing with projectiles. This experiment proves and supports the theory behind projectile motion to be correct.We do not take the mass of the balls or bodies into consideration when dealing with projectile motion as the air resistance does not affect the displacement of the projectile. The range and height are equal for all bodies which are thrown by the same velocity and direction. There was a small difference in calculating the acceleration due to gravity, this was because of the different readings and human errors that took place during the experiment. Both balls come under the influence of the same gravity and are attracted to ground and should hit the ground at the same time.In theory both balls should hit the ground at the same time, but because there were two people using stopwatches to record the times taking there was going to be a difference in the readings and calculation. The horizontal distance ball number two travels before it hits the ground is dependent of the time of flight and the horizontal velocity of projection. Ball number two will travel at the same horizontal velocity because there is no acceleration or any other force applied. The vertical component of the velocity will increases linearly because the acceleration due to gravity is onstant, so it picks up speed as it is falling from a height.

Corpus Linguistics Essay

Introduction This paper includes information about corpus linguistics, its connection with lexicology and translation. The latter is the most important one and I am keen on finding and introducing something which is mainly connected with my future profession. Frankly speaking that was not an easy journey but I am hopeful it is destined to be successful. A corpus is an electronically stored collection of samples of naturally occurring language. Most modern corpora are at least 1 million words in size and consist either of complete texts or of large extracts from long texts. Usually the texts are selected to represent a type of communication or a variety of language; for example, a corpus may be compiled to represent the English used in history textbooks, or Canadian French, or Internet discussions of genetic modification. Corpora are investigated through the use of dedicated software. Corpus linguistics can be regarded as a sophisticated method of finding answers to the kinds of questions linguists have always asked. A large corpus can be a test bed for hypotheses and can be used to add a quantitative dimension to many linguistic studies. It is also true, however, that corpus software presents the researcher with language in a form that is not normally encountered and that this can highlight patterning that often goes unnoticed. Corpus linguistics has also, therefore, led to a reassessment of what language is like. During this journey we will try to find out; What is Corpus Linguistics Corpus Linguistics Terms and Their Meanings History of Corpus Linguistics Resources and Methodologies for Corpus Linguistics, Corpora Translation Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, Corpus-Based Descriptions So fasten the seat belts we are flying! What is Corpus Linguistics? Corpus linguistics is a study of language and a method of linguistic analysis which uses a collection of natural or â€Å"real word† texts known as corpus. Corpus linguistics is used to analyse and research a number of linguistic questions and offers a unique insight into the dynamic of language which has made it one of the most widely used linguistic methodologies. Since corpus linguistics involves the use of large corpora that consist of millions or sometimes even billion words, it relies heavily on the use of computers to determine what rules govern the language  and what patters (grammatical or lexical for instance) occur. Thus it is not surprising that corpus linguistics emerged in its modern form only after the computer revolution in the 1980s. The Brown Corpus, the first modern and electronically readable corpus, however, was created by Henry Kucera and W. Nelson Francis as early as the 1960s. Corpus Linguistics Terms and Their Meanings Corpus (plural corpora). It refers to a collection of systematically or randomly collected texts of natural language which is electronically stored and processed. Corpus can consist of texts in a  single or multiple languages. It contains a large number of texts which allow the researchers to 1 / 6 analyse linguistic rules but the corpus does not represent the entire language, no matter how large it is. Multilingual corpus. Like its name suggests, multilingual corpus consists of texts in multiple languages. Parsed corpus (treebank). It is a collection of texts in naturally occurring language in which each sentence is parsed – syntactically analysed and annotated. Syntactic analysis is typically given in a tree-like structure which is why parsed corpus is also known as treebank. Parallel corpora. The term refers to a collection of texts which are translations of each other. Annotation. It refers to an extension of the text by addition of various linguistic information. Examples include parsing, tagging, etc. Annotation is often used in reference to corpora as opposed to annotated corpora which consist of plain text in the raw state. Collocation. It refers to a sequence or pattern in which the words appear together or co-occur. Concordance. The term encompasses a word or phrase and its immediate context. In corpus linguistics, concordance is used to analyse different use of a single word, word frequency and  phrases or idioms. Orthography. It is a standardised writing system of a particular language and includes various grammatical rules such as spelling, capitalisation and punctuation marks. Orthography can pose a problem in analysis of writing systems which use accents because the native speakers of these languages sometimes use alternative characters to the accented letters or omit them completely. Token. It is an occurrence of an individual word which is plays an important role in the so-called tokenisation that involves division of the text or collection of words into token. This method is often  used in the study of languages which do not delimit words with space. Lemmasation. The term derives from the word lemma which refers to a set of different forms of a single word such as laugh and laughed for example. Lemmasation is the process of grouping of the words that have the same meaning. Wildcard. It refers to special characters such as question mark (? ) or asterisk (*) which can represent a character or word. 3A perspective. It is a research method that is used in corpus linguistics which was introduced by S. Wallis and G. Nelson. 3A stands for annotation, abstraction and analysis. History of Corpus Linguistics  History of corpus linguistics is typically divided into two periods: – early corpus linguistics, also known as pre-Chomsky corpus linguistics and – modern corpus linguistics The early examples of corpus linguistics date to the late 19th century Germany. In 1897, German linguist J. Kading used a large corpus consisting of about 11 million words to analyse distribution of the letters and their sequences in German language. The impressively sized corpus that corresponds with the size of a modern corpus was revolutionary at the time. Other early linguists to use corpus to study language include Franz Boas (Handbook of Native  American Indian Languages, 1911), Zellig Harris (Methods in Structural Linguistics, 1951), Charles C. Fries (The structure of English, 1952), Leonard Bloomfield (Language, 1933), Archibald A. Hill and others, mostly American structural and field linguists. Some of them such as Fries and A. Aileen Traver also started to use corpus in pedagogical study of foreign language. In 1961, Henry Kucera and W. Nelson Francis from the Brown University started to work on the Brown University Standard Corpus of Present-Day American English, commonly known simply as the Brown Corpus which is the first modern, electronically readable corpus. It consists of 1 million word American English texts that are organised into 15 categories. For the modern standards of corpus linguistics, the Brown Corpus is kind of small, however, it is widely considered one of the most important works in history of corpus linguistics. But this was also the time of Chomsky’s criticism of corpus linguistics which would result in a period of decline. Chomsky rejected the use of corpus as a tool for linguistic studies, arguing that linguist must model language on competence instead of performance. And according to Chomsky, corpus does allow 2 / 6 language modelling on competence. Corpus linguistics was not abandoned completely, however, it was not until the 1980s when linguists began to show an increased interest in the use of corpus for research. The revival of corpus linguistics and its emergence in the modern form was greatly influenced by the advent of computers and network technology in the 1980s which allowed the linguists to use electronic language samples as well as electronic tools. The use of computers, however, dates back to the early 1970s when the Montreal French Project developed the first computerised form of spoken language, while Jan Svartvik began to work on the London-Lund corpus with the aid of the  Brown Corpus and the Survey of English Usage (SEU) at University College London. All mentioned works before the 1980s as well as the early examples of corpus linguistics paved the way to modern study of language on the basis of corpora as we know it today. The term corpus linguistics has been finally adopted after J. Aarts and W. Meijs published Corpus linguistics: Recent developments in the use of computer corpora in English language research in 1984. Resources and Methodologies for Corpus Linguistics, Corpora The basic resource for corpus linguistics is a collection of texts, called a corpus. Corpora can be of varying sizes, are compiled for different purposes, and are composed of texts of different types. All corpora are homogeneous to a certain extent; they are composed of texts from one language or one variety of a language or one register, etc. They also are all heterogeneous to a certain extent, in that at the very least they are composed of a number of different texts. Most corpora contain information in addition to the texts that make them up, such as information about the texts themselves, part-of- speech tags for each word, and parsing information. ? What Corpus Linguistics Does  Gives an access to naturalistic linguistic information. As mentioned before, corpora consist of â€Å"real word† texts which are mostly a product of real life situations. This makes corpora a valuable research source for dialectology, sociolinguistics and stylistics. Facilitates linguistic research. Electronically readable corpora have dramatically reduced the time needed to find particular words or phrases. A research that would take days or even years to complete manually can be done in a matter of seconds with the highest degree of accuracy. Enables the study of wider patterns and collocation of words. Before the advent of computers, corpus linguistics was studying only single words and their frequency. Modern technology allowed the study of wider patters and collocation of words. Allows analysis of multiple parameters at the same time. Various corpus linguistics software programmes, online marketing and analytical tools allow the researchers to analyse a larger number of parameters simultaneously. In addition, many corpora are enriched with various linguistic information such as annotation. Facilitates the study of the second language. Study of the second language with the use of natural  language allows the students to get a better â€Å"feeling† for the language and learn the language like it is used in real rather than â€Å"invented† situations. What Corpus Linguistics Does Not Does not explain why. The study of corpora tells us what and how happened but it does not tell us why the frequency of a particular word has increased over time for instance. Does not represent the entire language. Corpus linguistics studies the language by using randomly or systematically selected corpora. They typically consist of a large number of naturally occurring texts, however, they do not represent the entire language. Linguistic analyses that use the methods and tools of corpus linguistics thus do not represent the entire language. Searches, Software, and Methodologies Corpora are interrogated through the use of dedicated software, the nature of which inevitably reflects assumptions about methodology in corpus investigation. At the most basic level, corpus software: . searches the corpus for a given target item, 3 / 6 . counts the number of instances of the target item in the corpus and calculates relative frequencies, . displays instances of the target item so that the corpus user can carry out further investigation. It is apparent that corpus methodologies are essentially quantitative. Indeed, corpus linguistics has been criticized for allowing only the observation of relative quantity and for failing to expand the explanatory power of linguistic theory (for discussion, see Meyer, 2002: 2–5). It is shown in this article that corpus linguistics can indeed enrich language theory, though only if preconceptions about what that theory consists of are allowed to change. Here, however, we leave that argument aside as we review corpus investigation software in more detail. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, Corpus-Based Descriptions. As has been noted, corpus linguistics is essentially a methodology or set of methodologies, rather than a theory of language description. Essentially, corpus linguistics means this: . looking at naturally occurring language; . looking at relatively large amounts of such language; . observing relative frequencies, either in raw form or mediated through statistical operations; . observing patterns of association, either between a feature and a text type or between groups of words. Reduced to its essence in this way, corpus linguistics appears to be ‘theory neutral,’ although the  practice of doing corpus linguistics is never neutral, as each practitioner defines what is meant by a ‘feature’ and what frequencies should be observed, in line with a theoretical approach to what matters in language. Approaches to the use of a corpus that essentially rely on the existence of categories derived from noncorpus investigations of language are sometimes referred to as ‘corpus based’ (Tognini-Bonelli, 2001). Studies of this kind can test hypotheses arising from grammatical descriptions based on intuition or on limited data. Experiments have been designed specifically to do this (Nelson et al., 2002: 257–283). For example, Meyer (2002: 7–8) describes work on ellipsis from a typological and psycholinguistic point of view that predicts that of the three possible clause locations of ellipsis in American spoken English, one will be much more frequent than the others. A corpus study reveals this to be an accurate prediction. On the other hand, the study of pseudo-titles mentioned in the section ‘Languages and Varieties’ shows how assumptions about language – in this instance about the influence of one variety of English on another –can be shown to be false. Biber et al. (1999: 7) comment that ‘‘corpus-based analysis of grammatical structure can uncover characteristics that were previously unsuspected. ’’ They mention as examples of this the surprisingly high frequency of complex relative clause constructions in conversation, and the frequency of simplified grammatical constructions in academic prose. A clearer integration between linguistic theory and corpus linguistics is demonstrated by Matthiessen’s work on probability (see the section ‘Probability’). This work takes its categories from an existing description of English (Halliday’s (1985) systemic functional  grammar), but the corpus study was more integral to the theory, as it was the only way that statements about probability of occurrence of each item in the system could be made with accuracy. Corpus-Driven Descriptions However, more radical challenges to language description can be found. Sinclair (1991, 2004) argues that the kind of patterning observable in a corpus (and nowhere else) necessitate descriptions of a markedly different kind from those commonly available. Both the descriptions and the theories that they in turn inspire are, in Tognini-Bonelli’s (2001) terms, ‘‘corpus driven. ’’ Some  of the challenges to tradition that corpus-driven theories involve are these: . Lexis and grammar are not distinct, and grammar is not an abstract system underlying language . Choice of any kind is heavily restricted by choice of lexis . Meaning is not atomistic, residing in words, but prosodic, belonging to variable units of meaning and always located in texts. 4 / 6 Evidence for these claims is presented in the section ‘Observing patterned behavior’ above. The notion of pattern grammar focuses on the way that different lexical items behave differently in terms of how they are complemented. Grammatical generalizations about complementation cannot be made without describing that individual lexical behavior. Similarly, choice between features such as ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ depends to some extent on lexical item, as some verbs (such as afford) occur in the negative much more frequently than most. In other words, the probability of any grammatical category’s occurring is strongly affected not only by the register but also by the lexis used. Finally, the evidence of phraseology is that it makes more sense to see meaning as belonging to phrases than to individual words. Findings such as these have led many writers to see a need for descriptions of language that are radically different from those currently available. Sinclair (1991, 2004) proposes, for example, that meaning be seen as belonging to ‘units of meaning,’ each unit being describable in the way set out in He criticized conventional grammar for distinguishing between structures (a series of ‘slots’) and lexis (the ‘fillers’), such that it appears that any slot can be filled by any filler: there are no restrictions other than what the speaker wishes to say. This is clearly sometimes the case, and  when it is, Sinclair Translation Corpora can be used to train translators, used as a resource for practicing translators, and used as a means of studying the process of translation and the kinds of choices that translators make. Parallel corpora are often used in these applications, and software exists that will ‘align’ two corpora such that the translation of each sentence in the original text is immediately identifiable. This allows one to observe how a given word has been translated in different contexts. One interesting finding is that apparently equivalent words – such as English go and Swedish ga ° , or  English with and German mit (Viberg, 1996; Schmied and Fink, 2000) – occur as translations of each other in only a minority of instances. This suggests differences in the ways those languages use the items concerned. More generally, examination of parallel corpora emphasizes that what translators translate is not the word but a larger unit (Teubert andC ? erma? kova? , 2004). Although a single word may have many equivalents when translated, a word in context may well have only one such equivalent. For example, although travail as an individual word is sometimes translated as work and sometimes as labor, the phrase travaux pre?  paratoires is translated only as preparatory work. Thus, Teubert and C ? erma? kova? argue, travaux pre? paratoires and preparatory work may be considered to be equivalent translation units, whereas no such claim can be made for travaux and work. As well as giving information about languages, corpus studies have also indicated that translated language is not the same as nontranslated language. Studies of corpora of translated texts have shown that they tend to have higher incidences of very frequent words and that they tend to be more explicit in terms of grammar (Baker, 1993). They may also be influenced by the structure  of the source language, as was indicated in the discussion of wh- clefts in English and Swedish in the section ‘Languages and Varieties. ’ In communities where people read a large number of translated texts, the foreign language, via its translations, may even influence the home language. Gellerstam (1996) notes that some words in Swedish have taken on the meanings of English that look similar and argues that this is because translators tend to translate the English word with the similar looking Swedish word, thereby using the Swedish word with a new meaning, which then enters the language. One example is the Swedish word dramatisk, which used to indicate something relating to drama but which now, like the English word dramatic, also means ‘substantial and surprising. ’ Conclusion So every journey has its end. Ours isn’t an exception. It was a long journey but it was worth it. Corpus linguistics is a relatively new discipline, and a fast-changing one. As computer resources, particularly web-based ones, develop, sophisticated corpus investigations come within the reach of 5 / 6 the ordinary translator, language learner, or linguist. Our understanding of the ways that types of  language might vary from one another, and our appreciation of the ways that words pattern in language, have been immeasurably improved by corpus studies. Even more significant, perhaps, is the development of new theories of language that take corpus research as their starting point. The list of used literature 1. M. A. K. Halliday – Lexicology and Corpus Linguistics 2. Teubert and C ? erma? kova? 2004 3. Wallis, S. and Nelson G. ‘Knowledge discovery in grammatically analysed corpora’. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, 5: 307–340. 2001 POWERED BY TCPDF (WWW. TCPDF. ORG)